Have a great Winter Break!

After a restful break, we will do a unit on Genetics and Cell Transport.  We will also spend some time on Cell respiration. 

Test Questions for Friday

Help yourself to a piece of 11 by 17 paper.  Put your name on it.
ONE SIDE OF PAGE:
Answer the following questions using illustration and using the vocabulary words:

Lac Operon
structural gene
operator gene
regulator gene

cAmp
glucose
lactose
Cap
Promoter, Operator
Lac z,  Lac y,  Lac A

1.  What is the purpose of the Lac Operon? 
2.  Draw the Lac Operon, and label the regulator gene, he cap, promoter,  operator, lac z, lac y, lac A and the RNA polymerase creating the mRNA.  Draw, label and identify the three proteins encoded by lac z, y and a
3.  label the purpose of the three proteins encoded by lac z, y and a

4. Explain in an illustration how the lac repressor works
a.  to inhibit mRNA synthesis in the absence of lactose
b.   to cause mRNA synthesis to happen in the presence of lactose
c.   Include the role of cAMP in your illustration

OTHER SIDE OF PAGE:
Draw mitosis and meiosis, side by side.   Assume 2n=4      and     n=2
label and  colour code the chromatin/chromosomes/chromatids.  Explain what happens in each step.  Include the following words:   diploid, haploid, homologous pairs, centrioles, spindlefibres, interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase telophase

Create a summary sheet for your friday test.

Your test is on two topics: On Monday, I'm assigning you to create a creative summary sheet which includes all the vocab words and also illustrations and explanations of the two topics.  Use the paper provided!  You are to work on this on Monday for workperiod marks (5).

1.   LAC Operon, You took textbook notes on pages 638 and 639
Here is a very clear summary of the lac operon in more detail:
SUMMARY OF LAC OPERON
which is copyright from the Government Medical College and Hospital in Chandigarh
https://gmch.gov.in

2.  You took notes on MEIOSIS and MITOSIS. Here's a video to help you do a side by side comparison.
Today, I will ask you to create a summary sheet of

DNA replication PCR by Dr. David Ng

Please read the text and illustrations below.  Take out our notes on DNA replication and redraw it with the enzymes DNA pol III, topoisomerase, DNA pol I

Breakfast of Champions does Replication

by David Ng

This is a summary of DNA replication and originally this was published here .  It is copyright  and written by DAVID NG

To begin with, we’ll start with a chicken scratch drawing of a DNA molecule, which you know is double stranded. My poor pathetic attempt at illustration is therefore going to look like this:

You also know that each strand of DNA is composed of building blocks called nucleotides, and that these nucleotides are always interacting in a complementary manner. For example, A’s are always with T’s, C’s are always with G’s, Beavis is always with Butthead, etc etc etc. Let’s draw them in like so:

What you haven’t been told at this point is that chemically speaking, the two strands are going in opposite directions. The correct term for this is actually known as anti-parallelism. To denote this, I’ll draw some arrowheads on the DNA strands:

Although, this may seem a little confusing at first, try to picture two lines of square dancers facing each other. In this circumstance, you notice that when focusing on the left or right hands of the row of dancers, the two lines are going in opposite directions. This picture should help:

Your DNA strands are doing something very similar in a chemical sense. The difference, of course, is that instead of dancers, you have your choice of four nucleotides. Furthermore, like the situation of left hands versus right hands, the ends of the DNA strands are also different. One end is known as the 3’ (pronounced 3 prime) end and the other is known as the 5’ end. To the layman, these rather stoic terms are an unfortunate consequence of chemical labeling. So now, our picture should look like this:

I should reemphasis that the 3’ and 5’ ends are very different from each other. To be more specific, we say that they are chemically distinct from each other. They are as different from each other as apples and oranges. In fact the 3’ end is composed of a hydroxide group and the 5’ end is composed of something known as a phosphate group. These groups look a little like this:

Hopefully, it’s easy to see that they are indeed distinct from each other —even more so than apples and oranges. The hydroxide group being comparatively small and meek, whereas the phosphate group is prominent, overbearing even. This turns out to be a crucial factor because replication is carried out by the activities of a variety of different enzymes which all function by focusing on one DNA end or another or both.

So now, the picture looks like this:

It should also be pointed out that DNA is not really like this flat goofy looking cartoon. The two DNA strands are actually intertwined around each other in a rather pretty helical fashion. This is where the two strands are wound around each other, sort of like two elastic strings twisted and coiled together. Sort of like this:

Now that the stage is set, it’s time to introduce the proteins or the enzymes, which are responsible for the actual process of replication. Enzyme is just a fancy word for a protein that is able to facilitate a chemical process. What I’ll do here is to focus on terminology associated with a simple organism like the bacteria, e. coli. However, all organisms, even those as complicated as humans, do more or less the same thing when it comes to doubling their DNA — the principle difference being that unfortunately, the enzymes have difference names and labels.

That aside, the first enzyme for replication in e. coli that we should introduce is, of course, the most important enzyme in the entire process. In e. coli, this enzyme is called DNA polymerase III (or DNA pol III for short), and is essentially the one that is responsible for the actual business of making more DNA. If this entire exercise was analogous to a movie, then this enzyme is the marquee player. It is the Harrison Ford, the Julia Roberts, the proverbial bread and butter of replication. It is, quite simply, the star of the entire process. Instead of drawing a picture of Harrison Ford or a picture of Julia Roberts, I think a picture like this should suffice:

Problem is, if we were to draw this enzyme to scale with a helical DNA molecule (like this),

you’ll notice that the DNA pol III is actually too big to get inside the DNA strands. It can’t go about its business of copying the DNA, because the strands are all coiled up in the helical structure. In other words, there is a serious issue of accessibility. Even our star enzyme, despite its importance, can’t do its job without access to the molecules of DNA it wants to copy. Consequently, the enzyme that inevitably has to act first is one that is responsible for opening up the DNA strand. This enzyme is known as a helicase, and its role is to essentially unwind the DNA molecule, which would look like this:

The net effect being the production of a “bubble” of opening where the two DNA strands are pried apart and are subsequently accessible to the whims of the replication machinary.

Curiously, the DNA pol III, which after the unwinding event, can now interact with the DNA molecules, does so whilst attached to a bunch of other enzymes. This attachment is a little like a bunch of buddies hanging out together. The complex actually looks a little like this:

You’ll notice it has the following… (i) two DNA polymerase III’s: which kind of makes sense given the fact that there are two strands of DNA that need to be copied; (ii) one helicase molecule: which also sort of makes sense, because as this replication complex is doing its thing along the DNA molecule, wouldn’t it be handy to have the built-in ability of opening up the DNA molecule as it moves along; and (iii) one new enzyme which is known in e. coli as the primase. However, the purpose of the primase molecule is a little complicated and so to fully comprehend the role of this enzyme, we need to switch gears a little and tell you a bit more about the DNA pol III molecule.

What actually needs to be done, is for us to go over a few mechanisms that all DNA polymerases seem to use. In fact, these mechanisms are apparent that every DNA polymerase that has been discovered on this planet:

Indeed, they all (without exception) seem to follow a two basic rules.

Rule number one states that all DNA polymerases function by adding nucleotides to the 3’ end of the DNA strand. What this means exactly is that a DNA strand can be extended by the addition of new A’s, T’s, C’s or G’s. However, the new nucleotides can only be added to one particular end, namely the 3’ hydroxide group. This is a molecular restraint in that the DNA polymerase can only join nucleotides via this smallish chemical group. This rule can be drawn out like this:

Rule number two states that all DNA polymerases require a primer to function properly. This is probably the most challenging concept that needs to be addressed. If you get through this, then you can pretty much consider yourself home free.

To simplify the notion of a primer, let’s look at a single strand of DNA, complete with its 5’ and 3’ ends. It should look a bit like this:

Now according to rule number one, a DNA polymerase can extend this single strand chain but only by adding nucleotides to the 3’ end. In effect, you can argue that all of the relevant chemical groups are present for making more DNA. However, the problem lies in the fact that under these circumstances, the DNA polymerase doesn’t actually know what to add. How does it know, whether to add an A, a T, a C or a G? It can’t exactly be a random event, because replication is all about making sure cells receives an identical copy of the DNA code.

Take the following picture:

Under this layout, it should be clear that now, the DNA polymerase has the required 3’ group, AND it also has a template to read and ascertain what those nucleotides should be. For instance, if the nucleotide in the opposite strand is a G, then the DNA polymerase knows it should add a C. If the nucleotide in the opposite strand is a T, then the DNA polymerase knows it should add a A. Hopefully, at this point, you’ll at least agree with the following statement. A DNA polymerase can not do anything with a single strand of DNA. True, it has the right chemistry, but in effect, it does not have the template or instructions needed to define how the chain is extended.

If we redraw the picture. Say like this:

What you’ll notice are two strands of DNA, one long and one short. You’ll also notice that the strands are anti-parallel as discussed earlier. If you focus on the arrowhead, you’ll find yourself focusing on a perfectly situated 3’ group. Here is the end of a DNA strand that is chemically ready to have nucleotides attached. Furthermore, it is also a 3’ end that is located where a template is present on the opposite strand. In other words, everything is in place. The right chemistry, and a means for instructing which nucleotides to add. Again, taken at the simplest level, we can conclude that in order for a DNA polymerase to do its thing, it needs an area of double strandedness.

So,.. the small sequence of nucleotides that has been circled here…

… which makes an area of double strandedness is technically known as a primer. With this all sorted out, hopefully the rule about requiring this primer makes a little more sense, and you can probably guess that the enzyme called the primase may have something to do with this nuance.

Which turns out to be exactly what this primase enzyme is all about. In a nutshell, it is an enzyme capable of making a short sequence of nucleic acids which functions as a primer. A key point that needs to be emphasized, however, is that this primer is made up of RNA, which if you recall, is a molecule that is very similar to DNA in that it is also composed of the representative four nucleotide code. This is actually due to a biological technicality whereby it is possible to make a complementary strand of RNA without the use of a primer (hmmm, think about this for a second). Taken together, the function of the primase should end up looking like this:

If you’ve been following along, then hopefully you can see that replication from this RNA primer can proceed in a manner that can be drawn like this:

However, it’s wise to pause here for a second, because you have to understand that whilst this top strand is being replicated, the lower strand is also being worked on simultaneously (There are two DNA polymerase III’s attached together afterall). The lower strand is actually a bit messier for reasons that will become clearer as we proceed in this discussion.

Basically, the primase enzyme will also go about preparing a primer for the lower strands. However, if we draw this primer and label the ends in the anti-parallel manner, you can hopefully see a logistical problem in this set-up. Take a look at the following picture, and see if you can find the problem (remember, the DNA polymerases, the helicase and the primase all move as a single unit in one direction, and remember that all DNA polymerases must add to the 3’ end):

Do you see the problem? Do you see a problem with the direction of the primer? Do you see that the 3’ end of the lower primer is facing the wrong direction?

This is obviously a problem, and it turns out that in order to overcome it, the DNA polymerase will still add nucleotides to the 3’ end, but can only do so for a short distance. To keep it simple, think of it as being able to replicate as far as the enzyme is big, which should look a little like this:

Unfortunately, this doesn’t inherently solve the direction problem, so what ends up happening, is that with this lower strand, the primase has to continually make a primer, and the DNA polymerase III has to continually replicate a little bit. In the end, it should look like this:

The difference in how each strand gets copied is reflected in why some people call them the leading and lagging strands of replication. One strand is obviously fairly straight forward whereas the other is quite labour intensive.

Anyhow, after this is all said and done, hopefully, you’ll agree with the following statement. That is, we have finally doubled or copied our genetic sequence. However, it should also be clear that the whole thing is a bit messy. For instance, there are bits of RNA everywhere, and the lagging strand is composed of pieces. To address these problems, we have to introduce a few more enzymes.

The first of which is DNA polymerase I, which I will draw as a fish with sharp teeth. This enzyme is special in that, in a nutshell, it is responsible for dealing with the RNA. In a nutshell, its job is to somehow replace it with DNA. In a nutshell, I’ll draw it like this:

DNA polymerase actually has two distinct functions. Firstly, as its name implies, it is a DNA polymerase, meaning that it is capable of extending the DNA chain, but in doing so must follow the same two rules that govern these enzymes. In other words, it must add nucleotides to the 3’ end and it must use a primer as a springboard. Ironically, it is a shitty DNA polymerase. Whereas DNA polymerase III can replicate for several hundred nucleotides, DNA polymerase I has difficulty getting past a few dozen.

Secondly, DNA polymerase I is also an exonuclease. This means it’s capable of degrading or chewing up nucleotides. Which is another reason why I drew a fish with teeth. And not only does it chew stuff up, it does so in a fairly specific manner. To begin with, it likes to start at areas, which are termed as nicks in the DNA. In our picture, this is where the nicks would be:

Furthermore, this exonuclease is picky in that it always chews from the 5’ end. Basically it is gunning for that big phosphate group. So that you don’t forget this, I’ve drawn this picture to help you visualize this:

Now, if you take all of this into consideration, you come up with the following mechanism. DNA polymerase I will come in on our replication picture, and zone in on a nick in the strands. Once there, it will begin chewing on the 5’ end, which should look a bit like this:

Don’t forget that this enzyme is also a DNA polymerase, and if you look at the other side of the nick, you will hopefully realize that there is this beautiful 3’ end ready for action. This beautiful 3’ end is right here:

Let’s say that the fish’s ass happens to contain the DNA polymerase function. What therefore happens is that DNA polymerase I will start replicating from that 3’ end, which incidentally fills up the gap that was created by the exonuclease activity. This should nicely demonstrate how DNA pol I achieves its function of replacing the RNA with DNA. This whole step should kind of look like this:

Hopefully, this puts the shittiness of this DNA pol I in perspective. It’s quite biologically pretty because, I hope you can appreciate that DNA pol I doesn’t need to be very good. It’s only responsible for replicating the small region encompassed by that RNA primer.

So,.. after this enzyme has done its thing, you should now agree with the following statement — that you have now doubled your DNA. Of course, it’s still a bit untidy because the strands (especially the lagging strand) are still in bits and pieces. Enter the next and final enzyme, which is called the ligase. This enzyme has only one job and that is to seal all of the bits and pieces together. It fairly analogous to a glue job and essentially your picture will go from something like this:

To something like this:

And (drum roll please) VIOLA! You have doubled your DNA. You have made two copies of the same genetic code – which during the process of cell division, will enable each of the two new cells to receive a copy of the genome.

One of the nuances that should be mentioned is that if you examine the entire process, you will notice that each of the DNA sequences is derived from one old strand and one newly synthesized strand. Because of this, replication is often termed semi-conservative, whereby each of the original two strands is read individually to synthesize a new and complementary strand.

* * *

Actually, I lied. It’s not quite over. Before, I finally put this whole replication thing to rest, I think it’s also worth talking about one other enzyme, or a family of enzymes, known to scientists as topoisomerases. I like mentioning these enzymes, because I think they do a wonderful job of illustrating just how complicated and elegant nature is, when confronted with a specific job.

What we’ll need to do here is undergo a visual exercise. Let’s say I tell you to hold two fingers up like this:

And let’s say that I have an elastic band. With this elastic band, I will twist and coil it and then place it around both of your fingers. Essentially, this will represent the double helix and will look a bit like this:

If you recall, the first thing that had to happen was for a helicase enzyme to come in and open up that helix structure. Let’s say that I am the helicase, and I come in and grab hold of the two strands of your elastic band and pry them open. It should make a little bubble and should look a little like this:

Can you see that under these circumstances, the helix on either side of the opening will be actually twisted even more. It would be like taking your replication fork, grabbing hold of each strand, and like the helicase forcing an opening like this:

Do you see that this will cause a further tightening of the coil along the helix?

This is actually very bad for the DNA molecule, as this twisting can cause a lot of structural stress. So much so, that the DNA molecule is in very real danger of snapping – which you can imagine would be a very bad thing to happen during replication.

Topoisomerases are enzymes that are designed to take care of this problem. These enzymes can actually detect these areas of high structural stress, and zone in on them. Not only that, but whilst they are at these areas, they will then cut both strands in the DNA complex. Remarkably, they will then hold on to all four ends of the cut, and in a very controlled fashion, unwind to alleviate the stress. Finally, they will also behave like ligases and stick back the correct ends together again.

This is nothing short of amazing, and hopefully you can see that these enzymes play an important role. As the DNA is opening up for replication, there will always be an issue of structural stress, which is always addressed by the actions of these remarkable enzymes.

Anyway… taken together, that, Mr. Trout is what replication is all about.

What's on the test? Thursday, 29th November

1.  Hand in a big study guide due the same day as the test nov 29.  Make it creative, including all concepts, and key words.  Make it in colour!!!  10 marks

TOPICS
2.  Enzymes and Metabolism
3.   this powerpoint on the history of DNA
4.  DNA structure.  DNA and RNA worksheet.  DNA open book test
5.  RNA Transcription and Translation worksheet
6.  Transcription and Translation notes.  Do those questions

FORMAT
multiple choice and long answer questions

YOUR DAVID HARDWICK PATHOLOGY MUSEUM writeup
a one page summary of what you experienced due next monday

FIELD TRIPS NOV.27 and DEC 5

FIELD TRIP FORMS DUE NEXT PERIOD

NOVEMBER 27, 2018
LOCATION: DHPLC PATHOLOGY MUSEUM AT VGH to learn about human pathologies

We will be going to the following location.  Please meet inside the building beside the starbucks
at 845AM for attendance.  Our program will be in rm 2201 and last until about 11am.  Then you will be dismissed to take the bus back to Gladstone.

David Hardwick Pathology Learning Centre
Gordon and Leslie Diamond 
Health Care Centre
2201-2775 Laurel St
Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9

DECEMBER 6, 2018  POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION at the 
ADVANCED MOLECULAR BIOLOGY LAB

MIchael Smith Laboratories
2185 E Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4

 is located just SOUTH of the UBC bookstore.

You will meet there at 8:45 for attendance and the lab will last until 230 pm or even a little earlier if you are efficient.   You will be dismissed on site at UBC.

nov 29 TEST: STUDY QUESTIONS FOR TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION

HERE'S A GREAT WEB REVIEW

http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/transcription/intro.html

AND PLEASE ANSWER THESE STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What is the central dogma of molecular biology?   DNA--> mRNA --> polypeptide
2. Explain what is meant by the term transcription.
3. What is the function of RNA polymerase?
4. Explain what it means for transcription and translation to be coupled.
5. In what organisms are these processes coupled?

codon chart for our worksheet today

DNA Replication -Quiz next day

DNA

Take notes in class on the chapter on DNA  p. 609
Have a look at this powerpoint

And if you can handle it,  see if you can understand the original paper by Watson and Crick
This is the paper here

Metabolism quiz and worksheet

The Metabolism Open Book Quiz.
Click here 
This quiz is valid if you take it time stamped during our class today.

Do this worksheet on Metabolism

Metabolism

Go over this presentation on ENZYMES.  Students may look at this on their phones if projector does not work.

Take study notes on chapter on Metabolism. worperiod mark out of 5 for completing this work. Label the diagram based on notes.

reviewing notes for the test, Thursday, Oct 11 on Biomolecules

Review info from the notes on  protein ,  lipids and carbohydrates 

Here are some sample multiple choice questions.  We did not go over nucleotides yet, so just ignore those questions.  They are old provincial exam questions
SAMPLE BIOMOLECULE QUESTIONS. 

Take a look at ONLY page 8-16 of this document
Biological Molecules
It's quite an effective review of the material!

And work on the cell colouring worksheet.   You ought to know the cell and the  equation for cell respiration and the purpose of ATP.  Also know the basic cell organelles from junior science.

You have your worksheet on biomolecules too.  And all the open book quiz questions.


ASSIGNMENT DUE THURSDAY
Make a creative and colourful STUDY BOOKLET of all the things we learned so far.  Hand this in on the test date. 

Open Book Quiz on Biomolecules

1.What are two examples of monomers for carbohydrates
2.  Give an example of a disaccharide
3.  There are three examples of polysaccharides.
 Draw and define each polysaccharide

4.   draw the following lipids   a. triglyceride    b. fatty acid
5. protiens are made of monomers.  What are the monomers of protein.
6.  Explain the three types of structures for proteins.

7.  Choose one of the biomolecules and write and draw
anything that shows your understanding

Take protein notes Biomolecules worksheet

Take notes on proteins from our biology 12 textbook and do the biomolecules worksheet.  Our open book quiz is postponed to next monday

Functional groups

MIchael Smith conference Oct 2 and Don Rix Distinguished lecture Sept 19

Michael Smith lecture
http://www.bioteach.ubc.ca/portfolio/escapades-conferences/


Don Rix Distinguished lecture Sept 19

Introduction to course

Studying format
Making two column notes for studying and a big picture poster

column 1                              column2
Main idea
or main question                  lots of details


Basic chemistry review 

Study Questions for the lecture :  Introduction to Biomolecules:  
1, How do you know something is alive?
2. What are living things made of?
3. Explain the concept of biological heiarchy
4.  What are biomolecules?
5.  What is the difference between inorganic compounds and organic compounds?
6.  All living things contain this atom____.  Why is this atom so useful?  What kind of bond does it use?
7.  What are five advantages of using carbon
8.    Name the other 5 important biomolecules
9.   a. How are organic molecules formed?  They are made of M___    and P___   .
b.  If a pearl necklace was a polymer then what would be the monomer?
10.  How do monomers turn into polymers?   Draw a diagram showing dehydration synthesis
11    How do polymers turn into monomers?  Draw a diagram showing hydrolysis
12     Draw the dehydration synthesis of two amino acids turning into a dipeptide
13.  What is a functional group?
14.  An example of a functional group is a carboxyl group.

reproduction videos

Here are the slides for your worksheet
And here's your worksheet

 Male system and fertilization 
Development and birth 

Biology 11 Final Review questions

ASSIGNMENTS:  MAKE A BEAUTIFUL, INKED, ILLUSTRATED REVIEW BOOKLET COVERING ALL OF THESE TOPICS.
20 MARKS:  HALF DONE BY June 7
Fully done by June 11

Final exam is on ...  June 15

The Cell
1. Draw and  Label parts of the animal cell in a diagram:  nucleus, nucleolus,
endoplasmic reticulum,  lysosome, mitochondria, golgi, vessicles
2.  What are the limits of cell size?  Explain how the surface area to volume
ratio affects cell function.  Calculate the S.A/Volume ratio.  The smallest cells
have the biggest SA/Vol ratio.
3.  The plasma membrane is composed of what parts?  Phospholipids
membrane proteins:
And what kinds of proteins:  channel, carrier, cell recognition, enzymes
4. Questions on osmosis and diffusion:  If a cell is put in a hypotonic solution,
what would happen to it?  What if it was put in a hypertonic solution? isotonic?
5. Active transport (uses ATP)   vs
 passive transport (osmosis and diffusion and facilitated diffusion)

BIOMOLECULES
6.   The monomers make polymers.  What are examples of four kinds of monomers?
-- answer: monosaccharides,  amino acids,   fatty acids,   nucleotides.
7.   What kinds of polymers do the above monomers make?
     monosaccharides ---> disaccharides, polysaccharides
     amino acids ---> proteins
     fatty acids ---> phospholipids, neutral fats
     nucleotides ---> nucleic acids, DNA, RNA

8.  Hydrolysis and Dehydration synthesis.  Water in and water out.   Recognize it

DNA
9.  recognize parts of a nucleotide and the types of nucleotides, both purines and pyrimidines
10.  structure of double helix, 5' to 3'
11.   steps to DNA replication
12.  steps for protein synthesis
13.  if DNA is     AAA   ATA    CGT   GGG, then what is the RNA sequence and what is the sequence of amino acids?

 ENZYMES
14.  ENZYMES are catalysts.  What are the parts of an enzyme?  substrate,  active site, enzyme substrate complex
15.  Identify the co-enzyme

CELL RESPIRATION
16.  WHERE do the following take place?  glycolysis, electron transport chain.
17.  Identify the MATRIX in this picture of mitochondria

DIGESTION
18.  Here is a picture of your digestive system,  label the parts, which may include....stomach, liver, duodenum, jejunum, rectum etc
19.  explain the details of chemical digestion in the stomach.  What enzyme? what pH,  OR in the duodenum
20.   What enzymes are produced in the pancreas?
21.  What is the function of bile?
22.  What is in the stomach which prevents acid from destroying the stomach wall?
23.  Chemical digestion in the mouth contains what enzyme?
25.  Where is the micro-biome located in your gut?

CIRCULATION
26-30  label some diagrams of the heart, the cirulation system, including all the chambres of the heart:  atria, ventricles, valves, pulmonary arteries and veins, aorta, superior and inferior vena cava
31-36:  Be aware of the path of blood and be able to trace this path.  For example start at R. atrium,
R. Ventricle, pulmonary artery....etc.
37-40:  What are the differences between arteries and veins and capillaries?  thickness, method of blood moving through.  What kind of blood goes thru, oxygenated or deoxygenated?
41. Identify which parts of foetal circulation have deox or oxygenated  blood.
42.  What are the two holes in the heart of a foetus that gets closed upon birth. foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus.

43.  Label the ECG.  PQRS...etc  waves on a diagram
44-46   Label the pacemaker and the path of electrical signals for the heartbeat:  SA node - AV node purkinje fibres.


RESPIRATION
47-52    Label the parts of the Respiratory system: nasal cavity, pharynx, epiglottis, glottis, larynx trachea bronchi, bronchiole alveoli etc

53-56 INSPIRATION and EXPIRATION.  how does it happen, what muscles are involved?
what nerves are involved?

57-60  INTERNAL RESPIRATION AND EXTERNAL RESPIRATION.   Carbon dioxide turns into carbonic acid and back again using carbonic anhydrase.  Explain the carbonic acid buffer.

61- 64  What are the types of hemoglobin:
oxyhemoglobin, carbaminohemoglobin, reduced hemoglobin.

65.  What is the Bohr effect?  How does temp affect how hemoglobin attaches to
oxygen?


RENAL system.  EXCRETION
66-68.   Label this diagram:  kidneys, bladder, ureters etc.
69.   Label the nephron.
70 - 73.   which part of the nephron does pressure filtration,  tubular secretion, selective reabsorption
74-76.   Know how aldosterone and the other hormones affect filtration rate.  Control of the system.
77.  What is the affect of salt (instant noodle) or caffeine (coffee) on filtration

NERVOUS SYSTEM
78- 80  LABEL THIS DIAGRAM:  How is the nervous system subdivided?  Central nervous system, peripheral nervous system
81.  What are the two different colours of matter in the brain and which one is myelinated?
82.  What part of the nervous system controls resting and digesting?  And do you feel you feel that way right now?
83.  What part ( parasympathetic or sympathetic) is being stimulated right now in this exam?
84.   What are the parts of the reflex arc?  label this reflex arc
85.   What part of the brain is responsible for a.  movement,   b. thinking    c. breathing and heart rate?    cerebellum, cerebrum, medulla oblongata
86.  Name the five parts of the brain
87.  Identify the neuron, the schwann cell, the glial cell


REPRODUCTION SYSTEM... 13 more questions based on your reproduction notes, handouts worksheet

Kidneys and Excretion

The powerpoint is here
and the fill-in notes are going to be handed out. Please fill them in.

Take a look at the diagrams here.  Copy these out using your own drawings.

Today you will have part one of your respiratory test

This part is a group test. You may work by yourself or with two partners  but not use notes or phone.  You can only talk to the partner you are working with.  Take a moment to copy out the questions below and then put away the phone.

Use blank paper which your teacher might get from the photocopy room and make a booklet on the following topics, in colour and writing clearly in pen.  Give your book a name, like "Respiration for dummies" or   " RESPIRATION, the essential guide".  State who the authors are.  Staple your booklet together.

Your table of contents ought to look like this:


1.  A diagram of the lung and labeling all the parts. How does each part condition the air as the air goes in?
2.   How does breathing in and out happen? What muscles are involved? how does your body create a seal? What nerves are involved?
3.   Carbon dioxide is a gas and it must travel through the body to get to the lungs.  What is the Equilibrium equation and, using cartoons, explain how the equilibrium of carbonic acid turns carbon dioxide into the correct phase for travel through the body.  What is happening to equilibrium in at the body cells?  At the lungs?
4.  What are the three forms of hemoglobin?
5.   What happens to the saturation of oxygen to hemoglobin under warm, acid conditions?  What about colder, alkaline conditions?
6.   How does the control of your breathing rate happen?  talk about how the muscles, the brain and the nerves and the blood send signals and work together to speed up or slow down breathing rate
7.  Write about your own topic

USE ILLUSTRATIONS AND CLEAR WRITING TO MAKE YOUR POINTS.

Complete these introductory questions on excretion

Excretory System Problem Set

Watch this video

Read the following notes:

Excretion System

Draw and label the Nephron

1. What is the difference between excretion and secretion?
2. What is the difference between defecation and excretion?
3. List 4 organs that excrete substances and the substances they excrete. Also state which organ system each is a part of.
4. What ions do our bodies excrete?
5. Urine is yellow because .
6. How come the colour of urine can vary from day to day?
7. How does urine get from your kidneys to the outside world?
8. Why do animals have a bladder?
9. What is the difference between a ureter and a urethra? (Make up a mnemonic [memory trick] to remember which is where).
10. Why do males and females have different urethras? What is this difference?
11. How do you know when your bladder needs emptying?
12. Sketch or trace a kidney in cross section. Label all parts and include some kidney stones (in the correct place). Also detail the chemical composition of the kidney stones.
13. Summarize the differences between Bowman‟s capsule and the glomerulus.
14. Summarize the differences between glomerular capillaries and capillaries found throughout the rest of your body.
15. List, in order, the parts of the nephron.
16. Compare and contrast what happens to glomerular filtrate in the proximal convoluted tubule versus the distal convoluted tubule.
17. Compare and contrast what happens in the descending versus the ascending portions of the loop of Henle.
18. Which parts of the nephron are in the cortex of your kidney? Which parts are in the medulla?
19. Which cells of your nephron require the most energy? How are these energy needs met?
20. Explain countercurrent exchange as it happens in excretion. (Where does it occur? What is happening?)
21. If the people participating in the 30-hour-famine stop drinking water (and all other fluids) as well as not eating ...(a) What could happen to their blood volume and why? (b) How will their bodies compensate for this?
22. The blood volume problem experienced in question 24 could also lead to a blood pressure problem. (a) What could happen to their blood pressure? Why? (b) How would your excretory system react to this?

Complete your resp diagram and hand in your questions

the key is here

The small test on respiration is going to be Wed, May 2, 2018

Respiration notes

The picture link below shows a journey through the respiratory system

Notes are here and please get the diagram notes from me. Plus detailed notes here

Key questions are

Control of respiration

CO2 and H+ Levels

As monitored by the carotid and aortic bodies.  If these levels increase, they send a message to the  medulla oblongata Carotid bodies send the message through VAGUS NERVE.  Aortic bodies send the message through the GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NERVE.  Medulla oblongata stimulates the rib cage and the diaphragm to move faster.

Acidosis:  pH < 7.35         too much carbon dioxide

Alkadosis: pHB> 7.45       not enough carbon dioxide (sometimes caused by hyperventilation)

Carbon monoxide:   hemoglobin has a higher affinity for CO than for O₂ how would CO affect internal and external respiration?